Negative Cognitive-Emotional Factors in Latino/Hispanic Communities

By Alessandra Soto

As someone who is part of the Latino/Hispanic community, we face different negative cognitive-emotional factors. This article will explore how those factors can affect the Latino/Hispanic community, focusing on push backs and barriers that influence overall mental health and well-being. The Latinx/Hispanic community's socio-cultural contexts, although not universal, affect many individuals within the community. The language diversity includes Spanish and indigenous languages which is a key factor in identity and cultural expression. The dominant religion is catholicism,though there are also significant numbers of Protestants, and more; it is crucial to understand that this community is not monolithic. According to Latino Families: Myths and Realities, Latinos in the U.S. come from various countries, each with unique historical and cultural traditions, leading to a diverse community. The values they hold, Familismo and Personalismo, emphasize family closeness, solidarity, and personal relationships over individual success. The traditional gender roles, Marianismo and Machismo, highlight the self-sacrificing mother and the dominant male, though these roles are evolving. They also go through the process of adapting to a new culture while maintaining core values, which can lead to both challenges and opportunities for growth (Cauce & Domenench-Rodriguez, 2002).  Other factors such as nationality, socioeconomic, migration history, and individual experiences build diversity within these communities. 

Traditional Gender Role Perspectives in the Latino community

Nunez et al.(2016) studied gender roles and the concepts of Machismo and Marianismo, terms used to describe their relation to negative cognitions and emotions in the Latino community. Machismo is characterized by aggressive masculine pride (Mirandé, 1977; Niemann, 2004), while Marianismo is a form of sexism that encourages  Latina women to be very modest and self-sacrificing, with the Virgin Mary as their role model (Gil & Velazquez, 1996; Niemann, 2004). The researchers focused on several negative cognitions and emotions in relation to Machismo and Marianismo, such as depression symptoms, cynical hostility, trait anxiety, and anger in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study, OEa cross-sectional; cohort study of sociocultural and psychosocial correlates of cardiometabolic health. Participants, aged 18-74 years old, included individuals from Central American, Cuban, Dominican, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South American, and other Hispanic backgrounds (N= 4,426).

The Relationship between Acculturation and Mental Health

According to Brown and Patten, many Hispanics experience socioeconomic disadvantages, leading them to experience negative cognitive-emotional health issues (Gallo & Mathews, 2003; Gallo et al., 2009). This means as they adapt to the new culture and come into areas for inclusivity and equal opportunities, it may be harder for them. The barriers put into society towards minorities can impact acculturative stress as they are not only adjusting to the new society, but they are also seeking inclusivity and opportunities, for example, education, employment, health, and social mobility.  Additionally, acculturation is a significant stressor for Hispanics (Familiar et al., 2011). Acculturation refers to the process by which immigrants adapt to a new culture, requiring them to understand its values, behaviors, and traditions  (Fort, Crema, & Madella, 2015).  Acculturative stress is a major focus in articles studying negative cognitive-emotional factors. Adjusting to a new culture can create stress and impact mental health.  For example, the U.S. is considered an individualistic country, whereas Latino countries are collectivistic  (Krys et al., 2022).

It is crucial to note that as Latinos continue to acculturate to U.S. society, they become more aware of discrimination. According to Sirin et al. (2013), immigrant adolescents experience more acculturative stress compared to later generations, which leads to increased mental health issues. As they continue to acculturate to U.S. society, they become more aware of discrimination(Tuppat & Gerhards, 2020).Latinx adolescents who face interpersonal discrimination are linked to lower self-esteem, depressive symptoms, lower academic performance, decreased prosocial behaviors, and physical symptoms (Davis et al., 2016). Lipson et al. (2018) report that about 20% of Latinx college students in the U.S. experience depression (2018). A study by Pichardo et al. (2021) researched a topic about racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among Latino college students related to vigilance and sleep, based on their 194 Latinx college students enrolled at a Midwestern university, which is considered a Hispanic-Serving Institution, answered a Qualtrics online survey link with questions related to the study’s topic. The results reported, on average, moderate levels of sleep quality  (M = 7.88, SD = 2.10; range = 0–12) and sleep efficiency (M = 4.73, SD = 1.40; range = 0–6) (2021). The sleep quality scale was a self-reported survey, which self-reported subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, and daytime dysfunction. In contrast, sleep efficiency only considers the self-reported duration of sleep and time in bed. It’s possible that different types of discriminatory Latinx adolescents found that overt forms of discrimination were linked to decreased sleep quality but not quantity (Huynh et al., 2016). 

Addressing a Factor of Acculturative Stress: Discrimination

Systematic discrimination, including stereotyping, marginalization, and dehumanization, also affects minority groups (Thompson, 2003). The Hispanic community may bring certain cultural beliefs from their original society, such as machismo, and marianismo, into their new society. This can present challenges as the United States may have more of an open perspective into receiving treatment. This means that the cultural values taught in Latinx countries might not align with U.S. cultural values, leading to conflicts or different perspectives on minority issues related to receiving treatment. Altogether, these various factors can contribute to Hispanics/Latinos’ cognitive-emotional challenges.

Colorism, a type of discrimination within the Latino community, also affects mental health. According to a study, darker-skinned individuals are stereotyped and treated differently from school authorities (Thompson & McDonald, 2016). Furthermore, internalized racism has led to discrimination within the Latinx communities, which prefers lighter skinned individuals. This leads to psychological outcomes and trouble for individuals who don’t follow under this preference (Chavez-Dueñas et al., 2014). 

Other negative cognitive-emotional factors include, but are not limited to economic stress, language barriers, family dynamics, and stigma around mental health. 

Experiencing these negative factors can lead to specific mental health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. Roche et al. (2020) found that Latinx adolescents who have had a family member deported in the past year are at heightened risk of experiencing suicidal thoughts, alcohol use, and behavioral issues. Their survey of 547 Latino adolescents, aged 11 to 16 years, showed that 24.9% of the participants had family deported and detained in the prior year. They associated this incidence with higher odds of suicidal ideation(27.9%), alcohol use (18.4%), and clinical externalizing behaviors experienced (22.8%).  

The growing awareness of the anti-immigrant climate, such as the 2016 presidential election’s anti-immigrant sentiment,  has also impacted stress hormones and cortisol levels among Latinos (Zeiders et al., 2020). Barriers to accessing these mental health services include stigma around mental health and financial constraints.

Addressing Stigma and Barriers to Mental Health Treatment in the Latino/Hispanic Community

The stigma around mental health is one of the main barriers to treatment (Uebelacker et al., 2012). Two reasons are the fear of  being labeled as “loco” (crazy) (Cabassa et al., 2012) or bringing a “bad name” to their families (Martinez, 2017). Stafford et al. (2019) found that for many participants, the cost of treatment was a barrier to help-seeking. They’ve come across that some are too “pricey” or problems with their insurance, such as no coverage. This research studied the barriers to and facilitators of mental health treatment engagement among Latina Adolescents. There are also other overlapping factors like gender, age, and socioeconomic status that can further complicate the experiences of cognitive-emotional factors. 

To address stigma, it is important for mental health providers to use language that acknowledges the normalcy of the stress experienced by adolescents and to highlight the prevalence of mental health disorders among adolescents in the U.S. Additionally, providers should address potential stigma related to depression among adolescents from immigrant families. In order to prevent negative treatment experiences, mental health providers should clearly communicate confidentiality expectations and, when necessary, allow the adolescent to have some control over the disclosure process. To tackle logistical barriers, providers should have knowledge of free or low-cost mental health resources in the community to minimize the impact of cost-related barriers (Stafford et al., 2020). There are various recommendations and solutions towards opening up to treatment, such as  the importance of community programs and resources in addressing cognitive-emotional challenges . Also, potential policy changes that could improve access to mental health resources and support for Latino-Hispanic communities. 

In conclusion, negative cognitive-emotional factors can impact the mental health of the Latino community. This article explored various factors, such as acculturative stress, discrimination and racism, and stigma around mental health. These factors can lead to depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and poor sleeping quality. Examining barriers to accessing mental health services, including financial restraints and limited support from families were also discussed. Future research should emphasize cultural sensitivity, intersectionality, and solutions such as competent care, community support, and policy improvements.

References 

Cabassa LJ, Hansen MC, Palinkas LA, & Ell K (2008). Azucar y nervios: Explanatory models and treatment experiences of Hispanics with diabetes and depression. Social Science & Medicine, 66(12), 2413–2424. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.054 

Cauce, A.M., & Domenech Rodríguez, M. (2002). Latino families: Myths and realities. In J. Contreras, A. Neal-Barnett, & K. Kerns (Eds.), Latino children and families in the United States: Current research and future directions. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Chavez‐Dueñas, N. Y. , Adames, H. Y. , & Organista, K. C. (2014). Skin‐color prejudice and within‐group racial discrimination: Historical and current impact on Latino/a populations. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 36(1), 3–26. 10.1177/0739986313511306 

Davis, A. N. , Carlo, G. , Schwartz, S. J. , Unger, J. B. , Zamboanga, B. L. , Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I. , Cano, M. A. , Baezconde‐Garbanati, L. , Oshri, A. , Streit, C. , Martinez, M. M. , Pina‐Watson, B. , Lizzi, K. , & Soto, D. (2016). The longitudinal associations between discrimination, depressive symptoms, and prosocial behaviors in U.S. Latino/a recent immigrant adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 457–470. 10.1007/s10964-015-0394-x

Forcén, F. E., Vélez Flórez, M. C., Bido Medina, R., Zambrano, J., Pérez, J. H., Rodríguez, A. M., & Santos, L. H. (2023). Deconstructing Cultural Aspects of Mental Health Care in Hispanic/Latinx People. Psychiatric annals, 53(3), 127–132. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20230215-02

Fort, J., Crema, E. R., & Madella, M. (2015). Modeling demic and cultural diffusion: An introduction.  Human biology,  87 (3), 141-149. https://doi.org/10.13110/humanbiology.87.3.0141

Gil, R. M., & Vazquez, C. I. (2014). The Maria paradox: How Latinas can merge old world traditions with new world self-esteem. Open Road Media.

Huynh VW, & Gillen-O’Neel C (2016). Discrimination and sleep: The protective role of school belonging. Youth & Society, 48(5), 649–672. 10.1177/0044118X13506720

Krys, K., Vignoles, V. L., de Almeida, I., & Uchida, Y. (2022). Outside the “Cultural Binary”: Understanding Why Latin American Collectivist Societies Foster Independent Selves. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(4), 1166-1187. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211029632

Lipson SK, Kern A, Eisenberg D, & Breland-Noble AM (2018). Mental health disparities among college students of color. Journal of Adolescent Health, 63, 348–356. 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.04.014

Martinez AR (2017). Intersectionality, voz, and agency: A culture-centered approach to understanding US-born Mexican Americans’ depression experiences. Southern Communication Journal, 82(5), 278–297. doi: 10.1080/1041794X.2017.1347702

Mirandé, A. (2018). Hombres y machos: Masculinity and Latino culture. Routledge.

Nuñez, A., González, P., Talavera, G. A., Sanchez-Johnsen, L., Roesch, S. C., Davis, S. M., 

Arguelles, W., Womack, V. Y., Ostrovsky, N. W., Ojeda, L., Penedo, F. J., & Gallo, L. C. (2016). Machismo, Marianismo, and Negative Cognitive-Emotional Factors: Findings From the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study. Journal of Latina/o psychology, 4(4), 202–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000050

Pichardo CM, Molina KM, Rosas CE, Uriostegui M, Sanchez-Johnsen L. Racial Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms among Latina/o College Students: The Role of Racism-Related Vigilance and Sleep. Race Soc Probl. 2021 Jun;13:86-101. doi: 10.1007/s12552-020-09304-1. Epub 2020 Oct 18. PMID: 34306242; PMCID: PMC8300542.

Roche KM, White RMB, Lambert SF, et al. Association of Family Member Detention or Deportation With Latino or Latina Adolescents’ Later Risks of Suicidal Ideation, Alcohol Use, and Externalizing Problems. JAMA Pediatr. 2020;174(5):478–486. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.0014

Sirin, S. R., Ryce, P., Gupta, T., & Rogers-Sirin, L. (2013). The role of acculturative stress on mental health symptoms for immigrant adolescents: a longitudinal investigation. Developmental psychology, 49(4), 736–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028398

Stafford, A. M., & Draucker, C. B. (2020). Barriers to and Facilitators of Mental Health Treatment Engagement Among Latina Adolescents. Community mental health journal, 56(4), 662–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-019-00527-0

Torres, S. A., Sosa, S. S., Flores Toussaint, R. J., Jolie, S., & Bustos, Y. (2022). Systems of Oppression: The Impact of Discrimination on Latinx Immigrant Adolescents' Well-Being and Development. Journal of research on adolescence : the official journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 32(2), 501–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.1275

Thompson, M. S. , & McDonald, S. (2015). Race, skin tone, and educational achievement. Sociological Perspectives, 59(1), 91–111. 10.1177/0731121415580026

Thompson, N. (2003). Promoting equality: Challenging discrimination and oppression. New York, NY: Macmillan International Higher Education. 

Tuppat, J., & Gerhards, J. (2021). Immigrants’ First Names and Perceived Discrimination: A Contribution to Understanding the Integration Paradox. European Sociological Review, 37, 121-135.

Uebelacker LA, Marootian BA, Pirraglia PA, Primack J, Tigue PM, Haggarty R, … Miller IW (2012). Barriers and facilitators of treatment for depression in a Latino community: A focus group study. Community Mental Health Journal, 48(1), 114–126. doi: 10.1007/s10597-011-9388-7 

Zeiders, K. H. , Nair, R. L. , Hoyt, L. T. , Pace, T. W. W. , & Cruze, A. (2020). Latino early adolescents' psychological and physiological responses during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26, 169–175. 10.1037/cdp0000301