Written by: Elizabeth Aliyeva; Edited by: Hannah Kim.
Imagine a young child who, at the age of four, begins taking piano lessons. Over the next few years, she not only develops a passion for music but also shows remarkable improvements in her cognitive abilities. Her memory becomes sharper, her ability to focus enhances, and she exhibits greater spatial-temporal reasoning skills. Research suggests that this isn't just a coincidence. Engaging in musical training at a young age can profoundly impact brain development, shaping cognitive functions and emotional resilience in ways that extend beyond the realm of music itself.
Music has long been a universal language, transcending cultures and epochs to connect people through its rhythms and melodies. But its impact extends far beyond personal enjoyment; it plays a crucial role in shaping cognitive and emotional development, particularly during formative years. Research has consistently shown that engaging with music—from learning an instrument to simply listening—can lead to significant changes in brain structure and function. During early childhood, the brain is highly plastic, meaning it is particularly receptive to new experiences and learning opportunities. Studies have demonstrated that musical training can enhance various cognitive skills such as memory, attention, and spatial reasoning in such children. For instance, children who participate in music education often show improved verbal memory and greater mathematical abilities compared to their peers. Moreover, music can foster emotional regulation and social skills, contributing to one’s well-rounded development.
Music and Memory
Miendlarzewska & Trost (2014) conducted a fascinating study on how musical training in childhood has been shown to enhance cognitive functions and induce neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. The benefits are most enhanced when musical training occurs during sensitive developmental periods, but music-induced brain plasticity also occurs later in life. Key factors affecting the relative value of musical education compared to other types of training include motivation, affect, and social communication.
Musical training positively impacts various domains beyond music performance, including verbal abilities, second-language learning, non-verbal reasoning, and general intelligence. Early childhood is a critical period for musical training, with the most significant benefits observed when training begins before age seven, although auditory benefits can start as early as age two.
The role of motivation and the reward system in learning is notable but underrepresented in the literature. Rhythmic entrainment is proposed as a major mechanism underlying the cognitive benefits of musical training, improving attentional processes and temporal information processing, which are linked to reading and attentional focus. One thing to note is that performance anxiety and stress, often associated with music education, can impact learning. Moderate stress may enhance learning, while high stress may inhibit it. Future studies should consider individual differences in motivation and stress levels. Musical training fosters both near-transfer skills (e.g., fine motor skills and listening) and far-transfer skills (e.g., executive functions and linguistic abilities). Social aspects of musical education, such as group performance, enhance communication and empathy. This ends up contributing to one’s overall well-being and cognitive development.
Music and Focus
Kiss & Linell (2020) investigated the impact of background music on task performance and attentional states during a simple sustained-attention task, using subjective reports to explore this effect. The findings revealed that background music significantly increased task-focus and decreased mind-wandering compared to silence. Task-focus was associated with shorter reaction times (RTs), but the overall RT and variability were not significantly affected by the presence of music. This suggests that while music improved attentional focus, it did not alter the overall speed of performance. The results support the arousal framework, indicating that background music enhances arousal to an optimal level, which is beneficial for performance on simple tasks. However, the study found no significant effects of music tempo, lyrics, or genre on RT or attentional states, possibly due to participants selecting music that balanced their arousal levels. The study’s findings are consistent with previous research showing that background music can boost arousal and improve attention on low-demand tasks, but does not impact how quickly fatigue sets in.
Music and Spatial-Temporal Reasoning
Jenkins’ famous (2001) study discusses the mixed findings regarding the "Mozart effect," where listening to Mozart's music has been reported to enhance spatial-temporal reasoning performance for a short duration (about 12 minutes). This effect is small, varies among individuals, and does not impact general intelligence. Jenkins (2001) also explored whether the "Mozart effect" is specifically attributable to Mozart's compositions or if they extend to other types of music. Initial studies focused on Mozart's double piano sonata K448 and piano concerto no. 23 in A major K488, which were found to enhance spatial-temporal performance and reduce epileptiform activity in EEG recordings. In contrast, minimalist music by Philip Glass and old-time pop music did not produce these effects. However, music by Yanni, which shares similar tempo, structure, melody, and harmony to Mozart's sonata, also showed positive effects. Further analysis by Hughes and Fino revealed that a high degree of long-term periodicity (especially in the 10-60 second range) is a common feature of Mozart’s music and that of other musicians like J.C. Bach and J.S. Bach This characteristic may be key to the observed effects. These findings suggest that it is the specific structural features of music, such as long-term periodicity, rather than the composer alone, that influence cognitive performance and seizure activity.
The collected research provides compelling evidence that music, particularly Mozart's compositions, can positively influence cognitive performance and brain development. Musical training, especially when started in early childhood, enhances various cognitive functions, including verbal abilities, non-verbal reasoning, and general intelligence, by inducing neuroplastic changes in the brain. Similarly, listening to music, including (but not limited to) Mozart's, has been associated with improvements in spatial-temporal reasoning and benefits for individuals with epilepsy, although these effects are modest and vary by individual and task. Background music, particularly familiar or preferred music, can enhance task focus and reduce mind-wandering in simple tasks, suggesting that music can optimize arousal levels to improve performance. However, an important disclaimer is that the effects of music are not universal, as they are influenced by factors such as the type of task, individual differences, and the characteristics of the music itself. While the specific musical elements that contribute to these cognitive and neurological benefits are not yet fully understood, it is clear that both active engagement with music and passive listening can have a range of positive effects on brain function. Future research should aim to better understand the underlying mechanisms, the role of different musical characteristics, and the potential long-term benefits of musical engagement for cognitive and neurological health.
References
Jenkins, J. S. (2001). The Mozart effect. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 94(4), 170–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680109400404
Kiss, L., & Linnell, K. J. (2020). The effect of preferred background music on task-focus in sustained attention. Psychological Research, 85(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01400-6
Miendlarzewska, E. A., & Trost, W. J. (2014). How musical training affects cognitive development: rhythm, reward and other modulating variables. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7(279). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00279
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